Unfair Treatment of Minorities in the Criminal Justice System Essay

Unfair Treatment of Minorities in the Criminal Justice System - Essay Example Unfair Treatment of Minorities in the Criminal Justice System The U.S. criminal justice system has come under critical public scrutiny in the recent years for one of the age-old problems afflicting the nation - racial discrimination. The present research attempts a review of criminal justice administration in the U.S. with a view to establishing the thesis that minorities, Blacks and Latinos, are discriminated against at every stage within the criminal justice system - the racial minorities are charged with more serious crimes, have less opportunity to plea-bargain, are convicted more frequently, and receive harsher sentences when compared with Caucasians in similar situations. The scope of the research is limited to the extent of establishing the thesis and shall not attempt to analyze the underlying causes and/or examine the possible strategies for ensuring equal justice to all. It is significant to note that the issue of unfair treatment of minorities has been a subject of research and academic interest by mainly social science researchers and lawyers. While researchers tend to disagree on the sources of disparity or overrepresentation of minorities, as to whether it is due to disproportionate involvement in criminal offenses or to criminal justice system biases, there is a general consensus that minorities are disproportionately represented and are treated unfairly at almost every stage of the justice system. [Kramer and Steffensmeir, 1993; Blumstein, 1993; Cole, 1999] A review of the available research is attempted to understand how researchers have approached and addressed the issue. According to Coramae Mann, racial discrimination is endemic to the United States; it permeates the criminal justice system and all other American institutions, resulting in the unjust treatment of racial minorities. She claims that when the "more flagrant, systemic means of economic and political control of minorities used in the past were no longer feasible or morally acceptable ... criminal law began to be used to warehouse American minorities and maintain their unequal status." [Mann, 1993; p. 127] David Cole, a professor at Georgetown University Law Center and an attorney with Center for Constitutional Rights, who studied unequal racial justice in the U.S. claims that "our [the U.S.] criminal justice system affirmatively depends on inequality" [Cole, 1999; p.5] He claims that in the absence of race and class disparities the criminal justice system could not have afforded the policy of mass incarceration pursued since the 1980s. Cole claims that African Americans, who constitute 12 percent of the general population, comprise more than half of the prison population and have higher arrest and conviction rates, serve longer sentences, face higher bail amounts and are often victims of police use of deadly force than white citizens. [Cole, 1999; p.4] According to Cassia Spohn, blacks and Hispanics who are young, male, and unemployed are particularly more likely than their white counterparts to be sentenced to prison and receive longer sentences in some jurisdictions. Spohn's study also claim that minorities convicted of drug offences, those with longer prior criminal

Computer education Essay Example for Free

Computer education Essay Computer education is two sides of a coin, there are several advantages and disadvantages which are listed below: Advantages: 1. Information is available at the click of a button, the internet is very useful and gives a huge support to the teacher to enhance her curriculum 2. The students themselves can learn a lot about the topics taught in class through the internet 3. Children find the lessons interesting since teachers have access to a vast pool of information. 4. Children can submit homework etc via computer, thus saving of time 5. Saves a lot of stationery, paper wastage is minimal since students can submit their projects via computer. 6. Also, today everywhere a computer is used children become computer savvy and better prepared to face the world. Disadvantages: 1. Computer tends to make the children lazy, reason being that a computer is a one stop shop. Everything is available at a click of a button, they do not have to strive to collect information. 2. Children lose their power the think since just by putting in one word on the search engine a whole treasure of information opens up, everything is available without trying very hard, children lose their imagination power and ingenuity. 3. Children do not have to learn spellings, calculation, tables they become totally dependant on computers and their skills for memorising, application, quick thinking are not developed. 4. A computer is a very cold way of teaching, earlier live examples and objects were used which were far more exciting, we could touch, smell objects like earlier if a teacher wanted to teach about an orange a live orange was brought and shown, today everything is shown via power point presentations on screen which does not have the same effect on children, since a live thing is so much more exciting. 5. Children lose touch with the real world and live in a virtual world which is not good. 6. Children become loners, lose friends, since all the time they are stuck to the computers 7. They do not sleep on time since chatting, emailing,

Seawater Composition and Salinity :: Tides and Salinity

Using the decanted supernatant solution from the precipitation experiment, a wire loop was dipped into the solution. This loop was stuck in the flame from a Bunsen Burner and heated until a flame appeared. The presence of a bright yellow flame confirmed that Na+ was in attendance. Using a cobalt glass as a filter, the loop was examined and a violet flame was present, showing that K+ was also in the supernatant solution. Testing for NH + This test was carried out using the original solution to avoid contamination of ammonium salts from the other procedures. 0.1M NH4CL and DI water were added to a large well on the micro drop tray before drops of 6M NaOH were added. A piece of red litmus paper was put on top of the well and covered with a watch glass. The appearance of an unmarked blue color, a direct result of the release of NH3 gas, on the paper confirmed the existence of NH4+. The experiment was repeated using seawater instead of the 0.1M NH4CL and DI water combination. ! Quantitative Pre-Gravimetric Set Up Test tubes were obtained and labeled using a bl according to which test the sample was intended for Barium) and what depth the sample was obtained at or bottom).All the test tubes were put in a beaker and an oven at 110˚C for half an hour to dry. Once dry th removed and allowed to cool on a test tube rack, as Figure 1: Test tube rack with test tubes Figure 1, before being weighed and their weights rec Silver Halides Gravimetric Analysis The tests tubes labeled ‘Halides Top’ and ‘Halides Bottom’ were taken and 1mL of seawater was added to each. The test tubes were then weighed and their new weights recorded, before 6M Nitric Acid (HNO3) was added to each to acidify it. 0.1M Silver Nitrate (AgNO3) was introduced, causing a white precipitate to form. The solution was stirred with a glass rod and centrifuges for approximately a quarter of an hour. Once complete, another series of drops of 0.1M AgNO3 were added to ensure complete precipitation and the solution was recentrifuged for several minutes. The supernatant solution was decanted into a wast container and DI water was mixed into the precipitate to clean it. The solution was centrifuged, supernatant decanted, and rinsed with DI water once more before being centrifuged and the aqueous solution decanted for a final time. The test tubes were then returned to the beaker and placed back into the oven to dry for a week.

Night World : Daughters of Darkness Chapter 6

Whydidn't we just kill her?† Kestrel asked. Rowan and Jade looked at each other. There were few things they agreed on, but one of them was definitely Kestrel. . â€Å"First of all, we agreed not to do that here. Wedon't use our powers-â€Å" â€Å"And we don't feed onhumans. Or kill them,† Kestrel finished the chant. â€Å"But you already used your powers tonight; you called Jade.† â€Å"I had to let her know what story I'd just toldabout Aunt Opal. Actually, I should have planned forthis earlier. I should have realized that people are going to come and ask where Aunt Opal is.† â€Å"She's the only one who's asking. If we killed her-â€Å" â€Å"We can't just go killing people in our new home,†Rowan said tightly. â€Å"Besides, she said she had family waiting for her. Are we going to kill all of them?† Kestrel shrugged. â€Å"We arenotgoing to start a blood feud,† Rowan said even more tightly. â€Å"But what about influencing her?† Jade said. Shewas sitting with Tiggy in her arms, kissing the velvety black top of the kitten's head. â€Å"Making her forget she's suspicious-or making her think she saw Aunt Opal?† â€Å"That would be fine-if it were just her,† Rowansaid patiently. â€Å"But it's not. Are we going to influ enceeveryone who comes to the house? What aboutpeople who call on the phone? What about teachers?You two are supposed to start school in a couple of weeks.† â€Å"Maybe we'll just have to miss that,† Kestrel said without regret. Rowan was shaking her head. â€Å"We need a permanent solution. We need to find some reasonable explanation for why Aunt Opal is gone.† â€Å"We need to move Aunt Opal,† Kestrel said flatly.†We need to get rid of her.† â€Å"No, no. We might have to produce the body,†Rowan said. â€Å"Looking likethat?† They began to argue about it. Jade rested her chin on Tiggy's head and stared out the multipaned kitchen window. She was thinking about Mark Carter, who had such a gallant heart. It gave her a pleasantly forbidden thrill just to picture him. Back home there weren't any humans wandering around free. She could never have been tempted to break NightWorld law and fall in love with one. But here †¦yes, Jade could almost imagine falling in love with Mark Carter. Just as if she were a human girl. She shivered deliriously. But just as she was tryingto picture what human girls did when they were in love, Tiggy gave a sudden heave. He twisted out of her arms and hit the kitchen floor running. The fur on his back was up. Jade looked at the window again.She couldn't see anything. But †¦she felt †¦ She turned to her sisters. â€Å"Something was out there in the garden tonight,† she said. â€Å"And Icouldn't smell it.† Rowan and Kestrel were still arguing. They didn't hear her. Mary-Lynnette opened her eyes and sneezed. She'd overslept. Sun was shining around the edges of her dark blue curtains. Get up and get to work, she told herself. But instead she lay rubbing sleep out of her eyes and tryingto wake up. She was a night person, not a morningperson. The room was large and painted twilight blue. Mary-Lynnette had stuck the glow-in-the-dark starsand planets to the ceiling herself. Taped onto the dresser mirror was a bumper sticker saying I BRAKEFOR ASTEROIDS.On the walls were a giant relief map of the moon, a poster from the Sky-Gazer's Almanac, and photographic prints of the Pleiades,theHorsehead Nebula, and the total eclipse of 1995. It was Mary-Lynnette's retreat, the place to go when people didn't understand. She always felt safeinthe night. She yawned and staggered to the bathroom, grabbing a pair of jeans and a T-shirt on the way. She was brushing her hair as she walked down the stairs when she heard voices from the living room. -252Claudine's voice †¦ and a male voice. Not Mark; weekdays he usually went to his friend Ben's house.A stranger. Mary-Lynnette peeked through the kitchen. Therewas a guy sitting on the living room couch. She could see only the back of his head, which was ash blond. Mary-Lynnette shrugged and started to open the refrigerator, when she heard her own name. â€Å"Mary-Lynnette is very good friends with her,† Claudine was saying in her quick, lightly accented voice. â€Å"I remember a few years ago she helped her fix up a goat shed.† They're talking about Mrs. B.! â€Å"Why does she keep goats? I think she told Mary-Lynnette it would help since she couldn't get out that much anymore.† â€Å"How strange,† the guy said. He had a lazy, careless-sounding voice. â€Å"I wonder what she meant bythat.† Mary-Lynnette, who was now peering intently through the kitchen while keeping absolutely still,saw Claudine give one of her slight, charming shrugs. â€Å"I suppose she meant the milk-every day she has fresh milk now. She doesn't have to go to the store. But I don't know. You'll have to ask her yourself.† She laughed. -252Not going to be easy, Mary-Lynnette thought. Now, why would some strange guy be here asking questions about Mrs. B.? Of course. He had to be police or something. FBI.But his voice made her wonder. He sounded too young to be either, unless he was planning to infiltrate Dewitt High as a narc. Mary-Lynnette edgedfarther into the kitchen, getting a better view.There-she could see him in the mirror. Disappointment coursed through her. Definitely not old enough to be FBI. And much asMary-Lynnette wanted him to be a keen-eyed, quick witted, hard-driving detective, he wasn't. He was only the handsomest boy she'd ever seen in her life. He was lanky and elegant, with long legs stretched out in front of him, ankles crossed under the coffee table. He looked like a big amiable cat. He had deancut features, slightly tilted wicked eyes, and a disarming lazy grin. Not just lazy, Mary-Lynnette decided. Fatuous. Bland. Maybe even stupid. She wasn't impressed by good looks unless they were the thin, brown, and interesting kind, like-well, like Jeremy Lovett for instance. Gorgeous guys-guys who looked like bigash-blond cats-didn't have any reason to develop their minds. They were self-absorbed and vain. With IQs barely high enough to keep a seat warm. And this guy looked as if he couldn't get awake orserious to save his life. I don't care what he's here for. Ithink I'll go upstairs. it was then that the guy on the couch lifted onehand, wiggling the fingers in the air. He half-turned. Not far enough actually to look at Mary-Lynnette,but far enough to make it dear he was talking to somebody behind him. She could now see his profilein the mirror. â€Å"Hi, there.† â€Å"Mary-Lynnette, is that you?† Claudine called. â€Å"Yes.† Mary-Lynnette opened the refrigerator doorand made banging noises. â€Å"Just getting some juice. Then I'm going out.† Her heard was beating hard-with embarrassmentand annoyance. Okay, so he must have seen her in the mirror. He probably thought she was staring at him because of the way he looked. He probably had people staring at him everywhere he went. So what, big deal, go away. â€Å"Don't go yet,† Claudine called. â€Å"Come out here and talk for a few minutes.† No. Mary-Lynnette knew it was a childish and stupid reaction, but she couldn't help it. She banged a bottle of apricot juice against a bottle of Calistoga sparkling water. â€Å"Come meet Mrs. Burdock's nephew,† Claudine called. Mary-Lynnette went still. She stood in the cold air of the refrigerator, lookingsightlessly at the temperature dial in the back. Then she put the bottle of apricot juice down. She twisted a Coke out of a six-pack without seeing it. What nephew? I don't remember hearing about any nephew. But then, she'd never heard much about Mrs. B.'s nieces either, not until they were coming out. Mrs. B. just didn't talk about her familymuch. So he's her nephew. . . that's why he's askingabout her. But does he know? Ishe in on it with those girls? Or is he after them? Or .. . Thoroughly confused, she walked into the living room. â€Å"Mary-Lynnette, this is Ash. He's here to visit withhis aunt and his sisters,† Claudine said. â€Å"Ash, this isMary-Lynnette. The one who's such good friends with your aunt.† Ash gotup, all in one lovely, lazy motion. Just like a cat, including the stretch in the middle. â€Å"Hi.† He offered a hand. Mary-Lynnette touched it withfingers damp and cold from the Coke can, glanced up at his face, and said â€Å"Hi.† Except that it didn't happen that way. If happened like this: Mary-Lynnette had her eyeson the carpet as she came in, which gave her a good view of his Nike tennis shoes and the ripped kneesof his jeans. When he stood up she looked at his T-shirt, which had an obscure design-a black floweron a white background. Probably the emblem of some rock group. And then when his hand entered her field of vision, she reached for it automatically, muttering a greeting and looking up at his face justas she touched it. And This was the part that was hard to describe. Contact. Somethinghappened. Hey, don't I know you? She didn't. That was the thing. She didn't know him-but she felt that she should. She also felt as if somebody had reached inside her and touched herspine with a live electric wire. It was extremely not enjoyable. The room turned vaguely pink. Her throat swelled and she could feel her heart beating there. Also not-enjoyable. But somehow when you put it alltogether, it made a kind of trembly dizziness like †¦ Like what she felt when she looked at the Lagoon Nebula. Or imagined galaxies gathered into dusters and superclusters, bigger and bigger, until size lost any meaning and she felt herself falling. She was falling now. She couldn't see anything except his eyes. And those eyes were strange, prismlike, changing color like a star seen throughheavy atmosphere. Now blue, now gold, now violet. Oh, take this away. Please, I don't want it. â€Å"It's so good to see a new face around here, isn'tit? We're very boring out here by ourselves,† Claudine said, in completely normal and slightly flustered tones. Mary-Lynnette was snapped out of her trance, and she reacted as if Ash had just offered her a mongoose instead of his hand. She jumped backward,looking anywhere but at him. She had the feeling of being saved from falling down a mine shaft. â€Å"O-kay,† Claudine _ said in her cute accent.†Hmm.† She was twisting a strand of curly dark hair, something she only did when she was extremely ner vous. â€Å"Maybe you guys know each other already?† There was a silence. I should say something, Mary-Lynnette thoughtdazedly, staring at the fieldstone fireplace. I'm acting crazy and humiliating Claudine. But what just happened here? Doesn't matter. Worry later. She swallowed, plastered a smile on her face, and said, â€Å"So, how long are you here for?† Her mistake was that then she looked at him. Andit all happened again. Not quite as vividly as before, maybe because she wasn't touching him. But the electric shock feeling was the same. Andhelooked like a cat who's had a shock. Bristling. Unhappy. Astonished. Well, at least he wasawake, Mary-Lynnette thought. He and Mary-Lynnettestared at each other while the room spun andturned pink. â€Å"Whoare you?† Mary-Lynnette said, abandoning any vestige of politeness. â€Å"Who areyou?† he said, in just about exactly the same tone. They both glared. Claudine was making little clicking noises with her tongue and clearing away the tomato juice. Mary Lynnette felt distantly sorry for her, but couldn'tspare her any attention. Mary-Lynnette's whole consciousness was focused on the guy in front of her; on fighting him, on blocking him out. On getting rid of this bizarre feeling that she was one of two puzzle pieces that had just been snapped together. â€Å"Now, look,† she said tensely, at the precise moment that he began brusquely, â€Å"Look-â€Å" They both stopped and glared again. Then Mary-Lynnette managed to tear her eyes away. Something was tugging at her mind†¦ . â€Å"Ash,† she said, getting hold of it.†Ash. Mrs. Burdockdid say something about you †¦ about a littleboy named Ash. I didn't know she was talking abouther nephew.† â€Å"Great-nephew,† Ash said, his voice not quite steady. â€Å"What did she say?† â€Å"She said that you were a bad little boy, and that you were probably going to grow up even worse.† â€Å"Well, she had thatright,† Ash said, and his ex pression softened a bit-as if he were on more familiar ground. Mary-Lynnette's heart was slowing. She found thatif she concentrated, she could make the strange feel ings recede. It helped if she looked away from Ash. Deep breath, she told herself. And another. Okay,now let's get things straight. Let go of what just hap pened; forget all that; think about it later. What's important now? What was important nowwas that: 1) This guy was the brother of those girls; 2) He might be in on whatever had happened to Mrs. B.; and, 3) If he wasn'tin on it, he might be able to help with some informa tion. Such as whether his aunt had left a will, and if so, who got the family jewels. She glanced at Ash from the side of her eye. He definitely looked calmer. Hackles going down. Chest lifting more slowly. They were both switching gear. â€Å"So Rowan and Kestrel and Jade are your sisters,† she said, with all the polite nonchalance she could muster. â€Å"They seem nice.† â€Å"I didn't know you knew them,† Claudine said,and Mary-Lynnette realized her stepmother was hovering in the doorway, petite shoulder against thedoorjamb, arms crossed, dishtowel in hand. â€Å"I told him you hadn't met them.† â€Å"Mark and I went over there yesterday,† MaryLynnette said. And when she said it, something flashed in Ash's face–something there and gone before she could really analyze it. But it made her feelas ifshe were standing on the edge of a cliff in a cold wind. Why? What could be wrong with mentioning she'd met the girls? â€Å"You and Mark . . .and Mark would be-yourbrother?† â€Å"That's right,† Claudine said from the doorway. â€Å"Any other brothers or sisters?† Mary-Lynnette blinked. â€Å"What, you're taking a census?† Ash did a bad imitation of his former lazy smile. â€Å"I just like to keep track of my sisters' friends.† Why?†To see if you approve or something?† â€Å"Actually, yes.† He did the smile again, with moresuccess. â€Å"We're an old-fashioned family. Very old-fashioned.† Mary-Lynnette's jaw dropped. Then, all at once,she felt happy. Now she didn't need to think about murders or pink rooms or what this guy knew. All she needed to think about was what she was goingto do to him. â€Å"So you're an old-fashioned family,† she said, moving a step forward. Ash nodded. â€Å"And you're in charge,† Mary-Lynnette said. â€Å"Well, out here. Back home, my father is.† â€Å"And you're just going to tell your sisters which friends they can have. Maybe you get to decide your aunt's friends, too?† â€Å"Actually, I was just discussing that†¦.†He waved a hand toward Claudine. Yes, you were, Mary-Lynnette realized. She took another step toward Ash, who was still smiling. â€Å"Oh, no,† Claudine said. She flapped her dishtowelonce. â€Å"Don't smile.† â€Å"I like a girl with spirit,† Ash offered, as if he'dworked hard on finding the most obnoxious thing possible to say. Then, with a sort of determined bravado, he winked, reached out, and chucked Mary-Lynnette under the chin. Fzzz! Sparks. Mary-Lynnette sprang back. So didAsh, looking at his own hand as if it had betrayed him. Mary-Lynnette had an inexplicable impulse to knock Ash flat and fall down on top of him. She'd never felt that for any boy before. She ignored the impulse and kicked him in the shin. He yelped and hopped backward. Once again the sleepy smugness was gone from his face. He looked alarmed. â€Å"I think you'd better go away now,† Mary-Lynnette said pleasantly. She was amazed at herself. She'd never been the violent type. Maybe there werethings hidden deep inside her that she'd never suspected. Claudine was gasping and shaking her head. Ashwas still hopping, but not going anywhere. MaryLynnette advanced on him again. Even though he was half a head taller, he backed up. He stared at her in something like wonder. â€Å"Hey. Hey, look, you know, you really don't knowwhat you're doing,† he said. â€Å"If you knew†¦Ã¢â‚¬  AndMary-Lynnette saw it again-something in his face that made him suddenly look not fatuous or amiable at all. Like the glitter of a knife blade in the light. Something that saiddanger†¦ . â€Å"Oh, go bother someone else, † Mary-Lynnette said. She drew back her foot for another kick. He opened his mouth, then shut it. Still holding his shin, he looked at Claudine and managed a hurt and miserable flirtatious smile. â€Å"Thanks so much for all your-â€Å" â€Å"Go!† He lost the smile. â€Å"That's what I'm doingl† He limped to the front door. She followed him. â€Å"What do they call you, anyway?† he asked from the front yard, as if he'd finally found the comebackhe'd been looking for. â€Å"Mary? Marylin? M'lin? M.L.?† â€Å"They call me Mary-Lynnette,† Mary-Lynnette said flatly, and added under her breath, â€Å"That do speak of me.† She'd read The Taming of the Shrew in honors English last year. â€Å"Oh, yeah? How about M'lin the cursed?† He was still backing away. Mary-Lynnette was startled. So maybe his class hadread it, too. But he didn't look smart enough to quote Shakespeare. â€Å"Have fun with your sisters,† she said, and shutthe door. Then she leaned against it, trying to get herbreath. Her fingers and face were prickly-numb, as if she were going to faint. If those girls had only murderedhim, I'd understand, she thought. But they're all sostrange-there's something seriously weird about that whole family. Weird in a way that scared her. If she'd believed in premonitions, she'd have been even more scared. She had a bad feeling-a feeling that things weregoing to happen†¦. Claudine was staring at her from the living room. â€Å"Very fabulous,† she said. â€Å"You've just kicked a guest. Now, what was that all about?†Ã¢â‚¬ He wouldn't leave.† â€Å"You know what I mean. Do you two know eachother?† Mary-Lynnette just shrugged vaguely. The dizziness was passing, but her mind was swimming with questions. Claudine looked at her intently, then shook herhead. â€Å"I remember my little brother-when he wasfour years old he used to push a girl flat on her face in the sandbox. He did it to show he liked her.† Mary-Lynnette ignored this. â€Å"Claude-what wasAshherefor? What did you talk about?† â€Å"About nothing,† Claudine said, exasperated â€Å"Justordinary conversation. Since you hate him so much,what difference does it make?† Then, as Mary Lynnette kept looking at her, she sighed. â€Å"He was very interested in weird facts about life in the country. All the local stories.† Mary-Lynnette snorted. â€Å"Did you tell him about Sasquatch?† â€Å"I told him about Vic and Todd.† Mary-Lynnette froze. â€Å"You're jolting Why?†Ã¢â‚¬ËœBecause that's the kind of thing he asked about! People lost in time-â€Å" ?Losing time.,? â€Å"Whatever. We were just having a nice conversation. He was a nice boy. Finis. â€Å" Mary-Lynnette's heart was beating fast. She was right. She was sure of it now. Todd and Vicwereconnected to whatever had happened with the sisters and Mrs. B. But what was the connection? I'm going to go and find out, she thought.

Middle Ages educations

Education is acquiring or imparting new knowledge and also an art of teaching. Middle Ages educations have different experience from Greek education. Education in the Middle Ages most of the people were unable to read and write and showing lack of culture but some of the children who belongs to the upper class were educated. The Monks taught the poor children on how to read and write a little. Grammar schools where built for the middle class boys, and they worked long hours in the grammar school and the boys were beaten with rods or twigs as their form of discipline. Middle age education is unfortunate for the reason that popular educational history books continue to repeat errors and misstatements. During the middle age period monks were the teacher for learning to read and write Latin at the school for boys. Latin is the major language used by the church and bible. Literacy and learning were increasing and by 15th century students began to learn grammar, rhetoric, logic, arithmetic, geometry, astronomy, and music. At that time one-third of the population started to learn on how to read and write. During the Middle Ages, which were on the 5th to the 15th century, Christianity particularly Roman Catholic Church operated the parishes, monastery and chapels at the elementary level. Schools in monasteries and cathedrals offered secondary education while much of the teaching in these schools was directed at learning Latin, the old Roman language used by the church in its ceremonies and teachings. The church provided some limited opportunities for the education of women in religious communities of convents (History 2). The Greek Gods were much more down-to-earth and much less awesome than the remote gods of the East. Because they were furnish with human qualities and represented aspects of the physical world, such as the sun, the moon, and the sea (Greek ). In Greek education ancient Greece girls learned skills from their mothers like weaving and only boys went to school at the age of seven. Girls learned athletics and dancing for them to become fit and healthy mothers of more soldiers. And those who belong to a rich family were accompanied by a slave and most of the time if they commit mistakes they were beaten. Discipline was very severe; In Sparta children were treated very harshly. At the age of 7 boys were removed from their families and sent to live in barracks. They were treated severely to turn them into brave soldiers. They were deliberately kept short of food so they would have to steal-teaching them to stealth and cunning. They were whipped for many offenses. ( Lambert). The boys from Sparta became military cadets and learned the arts of war and joined the state militia which is a standing reserve force available for duty in time of emergency in which also they served until they reached the age of sixty. Sparta also provided training for girls who went beyond the domestic arts, they are not forced to leave home like the boys but they have same training that of the boys. During the middle age education they used the classical learning for Christian used. There were two traditions of classical literature and philosophy which separated the classical world and were brought together in union by the church rearranged into another educational method that would be the standard of learning. The union of the literary and scientific world views in Christ was the contribution of Medieval Christianity. Their system which is called as the Trivium, make the foundation of the seven liberal arts program which became universal throughout the Middle Ages. In this period the Hebrew people continued to teach their children the ways of God and rejecting pagan culture. At the end of Middle Ages, natural knowledge became powerful and philosophy being discredited, where the connection between the theology and the sciences were separated. And man started to work out and draw closer to life that is religion independent. At the early 18th century charity schools were built in many towns and called as Blue Coat Schools based on the color of children’s uniforms. Boys from rich families were sent to grammar schools and the girls still went to school but learning embroidery and music were more important for them. Until to the 19th century girls from upper class were taught by a governess. But the punishment in this period were still brutal, they included beatings and only less able pupils were humiliated by being forced to wear a â€Å"dunce’s cap†. In the early period, like those in Europe, consisted of one room where one teacher taught pupils from ages six to thirteen and sometimes older. The free education for all children were successfully implemented, educators focus their attention on how to attain quality education. In particular, significant in shaping new directions has been introduced which involves development of intellectual skills, engaging in new diversity of human communities and global culture.   The teacher-centered to learner-centered education instruction is highly emphasized and its new approaches to teaching and learning. There is a shift of teaching to a learning theoretical framework of instruction which is one process of transformation which is indeed the central point of great change during the contemporary times. The quality of education has been changing and improved. Although applications of techniques and theories where highly been practiced and exposure of students in facing the reality and its capacity to resolve and exercise leadership and responsibility. Organized teaching techniques and theory applications were being practiced and realized. Teaching skills were improved as well as the student’s performance in each field. In contemporary education, learning strategies were given stress and reducing the into which degree of the others. Works Cited â€Å"Tim Lambert.† A Brief History of Education. 1 April 2008 http://www.localhistories.org/education.html. â€Å" Ancient Greek Education.†1 April 2008 http://www.crystalinks.com/greekeducation.html â€Å"Hugh Graham Ph.D.† June 1993.Popular Education During the Middle Ages. 1 April 2008 http://www.catholicculture.org/library/view.cfm?recnum=903—–popular   

Several mechanisms have been proposed to explain the relationship between stressors and ill health. Critically evaluate these mechanisms as valid explanations for stress-link illness. The WritePass Journal

Several mechanisms have been proposed to explain the relationship between stressors and ill health. Critically evaluate these mechanisms as valid explanations for stress-link illness. Abstract Several mechanisms have been proposed to explain the relationship between stressors and ill health. Critically evaluate these mechanisms as valid explanations for stress-link illness. AbstractIntroductionMechanisms which explain the relationship between the occurrence of stress and illness.Stress which causes increased heart rate which may lead to coronary heart diseaseStress which leads to the suppression of the immune systemStress which leads to disturbances in the digestive tract that can cause gastric ulcersConclusionReferencesRelated Abstract This essay has been written to seek to undertake analyse and critically evaluate the relationship between the stress and causal mechanisms which have been proved to cause physical illnesses.   The research which has examined these phenomena shall be surmised and discussed to seek to ascertain if there are valid and reliable research studies that have proven that there is a causal link between these two factors. Introduction In this essay the relationship between the psychological conditions referred to as stress and causal mechanisms which have been proved to cause physical illnesses shall be discussed and the research pertaining to this shall be critically evaluated.   The three main mechanisms which will be examined are as follows: Stress which causes increased heart rate which may lead to coronary heart disease (Friedman Rosenman, 1974). Stress which leads to the suppression of the immune system which may lead to an increased occurrence of viral infections such as, colds or flu (Kiecolt-Glaser al., 1984). Stress which leads to disturbances in the digestive tract that can cause gastric ulcers (Brady, 1958). Each of these shall now be discussed and critically evaluated in turn. Mechanisms which explain the relationship between the occurrence of stress and illness. Stress which causes increased heart rate which may lead to coronary heart disease Friedman Rosenman (1974) undertook a longitudinal study which sought to identify basic types of behaviour.   Their study consisted of asking 3,200 male respondents to complete a questionnaire.   Then from the results of this based on the respondents response and their manner each respondent was placed into one of three types (Friedman Rosenman, 1974).   They identified three types, which are referred as A, B and C.   Individuals that exhibit Type A behaviours often have a desire to achieve their goals, a tendency to be competitive, desire recognition for their work and have a tendency to rush their work tasks.   Comparatively, those who exhibit Type B behavioural traits have no drive, ambition, sense to compete or urgency.   Those that exhibited Type C behaviours were considered to be hardworking and nice (Friedman Rosenman, 1974).   Eight years after they have carried out this research, 257of the respondents that had taken part in the study had developed coronary he art disease.   Overall, out of the 257 respondents 70% had been classified as having Type A behavioural traits (Friedman Rosenman, 1974).   This indicates that one of the mechanisms that may lead to the development of coronary heart disease in men is the types of behaviour that they exhibit However, though there are close correlations between Friedman Rosenman’s (1974) study and the occurrence of coronary heart disease in those with Type A behavioural traits this does not fully explain the occurrence of this phenomena.   This is because the evidence that this is based on does not consider a number of other factors which may have led to these respondents developing coronary heart disease such as, the lifestyle choices that they may have chosen.   In addition, to this these findings cannot be generalised to wider populations as they are based on a small sample of men.   Additionally there is no information pertaining to the respondent’s general state of health, age or circumstances at the time at which they undertook part in the research study, so it is impossible to ascertain if their coronary heart disease was caused by their behavioural type.   Therefore, though this study suggested that there may be a correlation between these two factors the ev idence to support this hypothesis is lacking.   This is also true of similar studies that have been undertaken to examine these phenomena (Chandoda et. al., 2008; House, 1974). Stress which leads to the suppression of the immune system Further to, Friedman Rosenman’s (1974) study, Kiecolt-Glaser et.al. (1984) concluded that stress may lead to the suppression of the immune system.   This suppression may cause the increased occurrence of viral infections such as, colds or flu.   Kiecolt-Glaser et.al. (1984) took blood samples from 75 student volunteers one month (control reading) before and on the first day of their exams (stress reading).   They also asked the volunteers to complete questionnaires which were designed to evaluate their psychiatric state of mind, their loneliness and ascertain if any other life events had occurred.   From these they discovered that on the first day of their exams many of the students had lower levels of natural cells which are used to fight infections.   They also ascertained that other problems such as, loneliness and depression was all associated with a weakened immune system (Kiecolt-Glaser et.al., 1984). This research shows that there may be a correlation between the occurrence of stress and a weakened immune system (Kiecolt-Glaser et.al., 1984).   The study was undertaken at a time when the students were naturally exposed to stress as they were sitting their final examinations and this means that the studys results are valid (Kiecolt-Glaser et.al., 1984).   However, because this was a natural study, other variable which may have affected the results of the research were difficult to control, therefore we cannot be sure that stress automatically leads to a weakened immune system.   However, a number of other studies have found that stress may lead to a weakened immune response (as an example see: Cohen et.al. 1991; Kimzey, 1975; Riley, 1981).   Therefore, though the results from the Kiecolt-Glaser et.al. (1984) study may have been accurate after all. Stress which leads to disturbances in the digestive tract that can cause gastric ulcers Finally, Brady (1958) undertook an experiment which sought to link stress to disturbances in the digestive tract.   He attached two monkeys to each other and then every 20 second for six hours at a time he shocked them with electricity.   One of the monkeys was classed as an executive and they were able to delay the shocks for 20 seconds at a time.   However, they could not stop them completely.   This experiment resulted in the monkeys who were classed as executives, subsequently being diagnosed with stomach ulcers as a result of this they died (Brady, 1958).   Brady concluded from these results that as the executive monkey had been in control they had become stressed and developed stomach ulcers which had led to their demise.   Therefore, he believed that there was a correlation between stress and the development of stomach ulcers. When we examine Brady’s (1958) study, we can see that there are flaws in his methodology.   Weiss (1972) used the same methodology with rats as control subjects and did not find that the executives developed stomach ulcers.   Therefore, Brady’s (1958) study does not prove conclusively that those suffering from stress will develop stomach ulcers.   Other scholars (Bhatia Tandon, 2005; Yabana Yachi, 1988) have also sought to link stress to being a casual factor in the development of stomach ulcers however they reached the same conclusions as Weiss (1972). Each of the three mechanisms that have been discussed above which have been utilised to investigate the causal link between stress and illness have not conclusively proven that there is one.   The most viable of these three hypotheses is that there may be a causal link between the onset of stress and the development of a weakened immune system (Cohen et.al., 1991; Kimzey, 1975; Riley, 1981). Conclusion This essay sought to investigate the causal relationships between stress and physical illnesses.   Three mechanisms that have been explored by scholars were discussed and critically evaluated (Brady, 1958; Friedman Rosenman, 1974; Kiecolt-Glaser et. al., 1984).   However, the only one of these three mechanisms which may prove that there is a link between stress and the development of physical illnesses is that which identified that stress may lead to a weakened immune response (Cohen et.al., 1991; Kimzey, 1975; Riley, 1981).   Therefore, the evidence to prove that stress is a causal factor in the onset of physical illnesses is contradictory and limited due to the limitations of the studies which have been undertaken.   That is not to say that all of the studies that have been undertaken to explore this casual link are not valid, but that their methods and results must be carefully analysed before we accept their conclusions as valid. References Bhatia, V., Tandon, R. K. (2005). Stress and the gastrointestinal tract.Journal of gastroenterology and hepatology,  20(3), 332-339. Brady, J. V. (1958). Ulcers in executive monkeys.  Scientific American, 199 (4), 95-100 Chandola, T., Britton, A., Brunner, E., Hemingway, H., Malik, M., Kumari, M., Marmot, M. (2008). Work stress and coronary heart disease: what are the mechanisms?.  European Heart Journal,  29(5), 640-648. Cohen, S., Tyrrell, D. A., Smith, A. P. (1991). Psychological stress in humans and susceptibility to the common cold. N. Engl. J. Med. 325, 606–612. Friedman, M. and Rosenman, R.H. (1974). Type A Behaviour and Your Heart. New York: Knopf. House, J. S. (1974). Occupational stress and coronary heart disease: A review and theoretical integration.  Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 12-27. Kiecolt-Glaser, J. K., Garner, W., Speicher, C. E., Penn, G., Glaser, R. (1984). Psychosocial modiï ¬ ers of immunocompetence in medical students. Psychosom. Med. 46, 7–14. Kimzey, S. L. (1975). The effects of extended spaceï ¬â€šight on hematologic and immunologic systems. J. Am. Med. Womens Assoc. 30, 218–232. Riley, V. (1981). Psychoneuroendocrine influences on immunocompetence and neoplasia.  Science,  212(4499), 1100-1109. Weiss, J. M. (1971). Effects of punishing the coping response (conflict) on stress pathology in rats.  Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology,  77(1), 14. Yabana, T., Yachi, A. (1988). Stress-induced vascular damage and ulcer.Digestive diseases and sciences,  33(6), 751-761

Understanding German Adverbs

Understanding German Adverbs Similar to English, German adverbs are words that modify verbs, adjectives or other adverbs. They are used to indicate a place, time, cause, and manner, and they can be found in various parts of a sentence. Examples Here is where you might find an adverb in a German sentence: Before or after verbs:Ich lese gern. (I like reading.)Das habe ich hierhin gestellt. (I put that here.)Before or after nouns:Der Mann da, der guckt dich immer an. (The man over there is always looking at you.)Ich habe drà ¼ben am Ufer ein Boot. (I have a boat over there by the shore.)Before or after adjectives:Diese Frau ist sehr hà ¼bsch. (This woman is very pretty.)Ich bin in sptestens drei Wochen zurà ¼ck. (Ill be back in three weeks at the latest.) Conjunctions Adverbs can also sometimes function as conjunctions. For example:   Ich habe letzte Nacht à ¼berhaupt nicht geschlafen, deshalb bin ich mà ¼de. (I didn’t sleep at all last night, that’s why I’m so tired.) Modify a Sentence Adverbs can also change a sentence. Specifically, question adverbs (Frageadverbien) can modify a phrase or a sentence. For example:   Worà ¼ber denkst du? (What are you thinking about?) The very best thing about German adverbs is that they are never declined. (Did we just hear a sigh of relief?) Furthermore, adverbs can be created from nouns, prepositions, verbs, and adjectives: Creating Adverbs Here are some ways you can make adverbs in German:   Adverbs plus prepositions:  When combining prepositions with the adverbs wo(r), da(r) or  hier, you get prepositional adverbs, such as worauf  (on where), davor  (before that) and  hierum  (around here).Verbs as adverbs:  Past particles of verbs can stand in as adverbs and without modification. Read more here:  Past Participles as Adverbs.  When an adjective is an adverb: Predicate adjectives will function as adverbs when placed after a conjugated verb and you do not need to make any changes to the predicate adjective. Unlike English, Germans do not make a distinction in form between a predicate adjective and an adverb. See Adverbs of Manner and Degree.   Types Adverbs are divided into four main groups: PlaceTimeManner and DegreeIndicating Cause

Definition and Examples of Philippics

Definition and Examples of Philippics Philippic is  discourse (traditionally an oration) that is characterized by fierce condemnation of a subject; a diatribe or rant. The term philippic (from Greek philippikos) is derived from the virulent denunciations of Philip II of Macedon delivered by Demosthenes of Athens in the fourth century BC. Demosthenes is commonly regarded as the greatest orator of his age. See Examples and Observations, below. Novelist Donna Tartts Philippic Against Prescriptive Usage Michael Pietsch: Before I began editing your book, you sent a philippic against standardization. You declared that spell-check, auto-correct, and (if I recall correctly) even sacred cows like Strunk White and the Chicago Manual of Style are the writer’s enemies, that the writer’s voice and choice are the highest standard. Do you have advice for other writers confronted with editorial standardization?Donna Tartt: Was it really a philippic? I thought it was more a cordial memorandum.Pietsch: Two-thirds of the way through a set of notes to the copy editor, you wrote: I am terribly troubled by the ever-growing tendency to standardized and prescriptive usage, and I think that the Twentieth century, American-invented conventions of House Rules and House Style, to say nothing of automatic computer functions like Spellcheck and AutoCorrect, have exacted an abrasive, narrowing, and destructive effect on the way writers use language and ultimately on the language itself. Journalism and newspaper writing are one thing; House Style indubitably very valuable there; but as a literary novelist who writes by hand, in a notebook, I want to be able to use language for texture and Ive intentionally employed a looser, pre-twentieth century model rather than running my work through any one House Style mill. Tartt: WellIm not saying that the writers voice is always the highest standard; only that a lot of writers who are fine stylists and whose work I love wouldnt make it past a contemporary copy editor armed with the Chicago Manual, including some of the greatest writers and stylists of the 19th and 20th century. (Donna Tartt and Michael Pietsch, The Slate Book Review Author-Editor Conversation. Slate, October 11, 2013) Paul Simons Simple Desultory Philippic I been Norman Mailered, Maxwell Taylored.I been John OHarad, McNamarad.I been Rolling Stoned and Beatled till Im blind.I been Ayn Randed, nearly brandedCommunist, cause Im left-handed.Thats the hand I use, well, never mind! . . .I been Mick Jaggered, silver daggered.Andy Warhol, wont you please come home?I been mothered, fathered, aunt and uncled,Been Roy Haleed and Art Garfunkeled.I just discovered somebodys tapped my phone. [Paul Simon, A Simple Desultory Philippic (or How I Was Robert McNamarad into Submission). Parsley, Sage, Rosemary and Thyme by Simon Garfunkel. Columbia, 1966] The Philippics of Demosthenes (384-323 BC) From 351 BCE, until his self-induced death by poison in 323 BCE (to avoid death at the hands of Philip of Macedons soldiers), Demosthenes turned his talents to public affairs, particularly to rallying the Athenian people against the imminent threat of invasion by Philip...The Philippics are speeches delivered by Demosthenes between the years 351 BCE and 340 BCE. There are four Philippics orations although Dobson doubts that the fourth is legitimate. The first two Philippics are calls to the Athenian people to resist Philip before Athens itself is threatened with domination by the barbarian from the north. The Third Philippic occurs after Philip has gained control of many parts of the Athenian empire and is about to march on the city of Olynthus. Demosthenes pleads urgently and desperately for a military mission to help the Olynthians and prepare for war. Despite his failure in rousing the Athenian people to arm themselves against Philip, Demosthenes Philippic orations are considered masterpieces of rhetorical invention and technique. (James J. Murphy, Richard A. Katula, and Michael Hoppmann, A Synoptic History of Classical Rhetoric, 4th ed. Routledge, 2014) The Philippics of Cicero (106-43 BC) With Julius Caesars assassination in 44 BCE Cicero re-entered a political arena that granted him an opportunity to renew his consular voice and use his Republican rhetoric, now against Caesars lieutenant Marcus Antonius. These Philippics allowed Caesar to revive his Demosthenic persona and to provide a capstone to his claim to be the near embodiment of the [Roman] Republic, boasting at the start of the Second Philippic that in twenty years there has been no enemy of the Republic who has not also simultaneously declared war on Cicero... Ciceros proscription by the triumvirs and his brutal murder showed that he miscalculated his rhetorics power to impose his image of the Republic upon this changed political landscape.Ciceros final stand on behalf of the Republic in his speeches against Antony secured his heroization as the orator who embodied the Republic and its values, his contradictions and compromises largely forgotten.(John Dugan, Rhetoric and the Roman Republic. The Cambridge Com panion to Ancient Rhetoric, ed. by Erik Gunderson. Cambridge University Press, 2009) Despite the final outcome, Ciceros fourteen extant orations against Antony (perhaps three more are lost) may be felt to represent his finest hour. . . . Cicero invokes a rhetoric of crisis, in which good is pitted against evil with no room for compromise (cf. Wooten 1983; Hall 2002: 283-7). Even his style has changed. Sentences are shorter, periodic structures less frequent, and main ideas are not kept in suspense until a sentence ends . . ..(Christopher P. Craig, Cicero as Orator. A Companion to Roman Rhetoric, ed. by William Dominik and Jon Hall. Blackwell, 2010) The Lighter Side of Philippics A PHILIPPIC*Down with that phrase soporific, bromidicWhatever that isRelic of days paleozoic, druidicWhatever that is.Does one remark, in a tone unspectacular,I think the comet diffusely opacular,Some one will cry in the vulgar vernacular:Whatever that is!Curses on him who invented the sloganWhatever that is!Jump on his neck with an ensiform broganWhatever that is.Phrase without meaning, bourgeois and pestiferous,Phrase that is wearying, dull and somniferous,Here is anathema umbraculiferousWhatever that is.*Whateverthatis. (Franklin Pierce Adams, By and Large. Doubleday, 1920)

ECONOMIC FORECASTING AT Bank OF GREEN Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

ECONOMIC FORECASTING AT Bank OF GREEN - Essay Example The bank Federal Reserve should make sure that the interest rate is maintained at an affordable rate in order to avoid inflation (The Federal Reserve 4). As a result, the investors will not only be able to borrow and expand their investment portfolio but also they will have confidence in the value of their pensions. The increase in the level of investment will ultimately create job opportunities for the household thus raising the income as well as the consumer spending (Jodi 3). As time goes by, the economy will be back in track leading to a raise in the level of consumer confidence. On its part, the Bank of Green should ensure that it emulates appropriate changes on the products and services they are offering. For example, the bank should ensure that the products can be easily changed into liquid at a faster rate. In this way, the consumer will have adequate money at their disposal thus ensuring they easily access other products and services provided by the economy. The bank should also emulate extensive marketing of the products as a way of creating strong customer

Family Heritage Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Family Heritage - Essay Example In Dalianliaoning, I was fortunate to attend Dalian elementary school before we relocated to Shanghai again. My father’s business was growing and a result we have been living in Shanghai since the year 2000.The aim of coming to the US was to pursue my education (Travel China guide, 2014). The Han group is believed to have settled in America with the aim of engaging in certain economic activities including building of railways and mining. They mainly settled in California and other places such as Rocky Mountains. They started participating in economic activities in order to meet their means because they were finding facing challenging of serving in the new land. The Chinese Americans experience discrimination despite heading lucrative jobs in the military and other science fields (Every Culture, 2014). The Putian County came into existence in the year 568.The borders the coastal town of Fujian. It has no plantations. It also enjoys a serene weather condition and experience sufficient rainfall, and enough sunshine thought the year. Putian is mainly visited during the winter season of the year. The main centers of attraction include the Meizhou Island and Guanghua temple. The Mazu goddess is believed to occupy the temple. Tourist from around the world troop the town every year because the town fascinates many people around the world. The Jiuli Lake is located some kilometers Xian you town. It has gorgeous scenery and has historical views that were designed by ancient architectures. The Jiuji waterfall is a renowned natural site in a place and interests many visitors. The main means of transport from a town called Fuzhou to Putian is with public transport. In Meizhou Island, the goddess is well respected, and the culture dictates events be held to be occasionally held to celebrate he r. Specific days have been set aside in order to mark her achievements

Local lawsuit Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Local lawsuit - Essay Example In one of such incidents, Monsanto had incorrectly advertised its herbicide as being biodegradable and further asserted that it left the soil clean. The event happened in the year 2009 and it had to pay a fine of 15000 Euros (BBC, 2009). It has also been identified that the senior manager of Monsanto ordered one of the consulting firms which is in Indonesia to offer a bribe of $50000 to a top bureaucrat working with environment ministry of Indonesia in the year 2002. Therefore, in this regard, Monsanto had to pay a fine of $1.5m (BBC, 2009). Risk Management Strategies Companies often face with lawsuits as they tend to violate the governments’ requirements or tend to break the criminal laws. Once the companies have identified the risks, it becomes significant to minimize the risks and thus manage them to a greater extent. The company needs to ensure that there is better supervision and therefore there must be clear communication of the policies. The key to reduce the risks of w orkplace related lawsuits is to be proactive. It becomes significant for the companies to execute policies and trainings which are designed to avoid the lawsuits (Pakroo & Pakroo, 2011). Risk management can be identified as a procedure meant to prevent any sort of physical, financial and time loss in an organization (Chan, 2010). Monsanto should not have advertised wrongly since doing so not only leads to lawsuits but also ruins the reputation of the company. The company could have ensured that the staffs are made aware of the problems of such illegal activities and therefore should have provided the staffs with proper information on risks and consequences of such illegal activities. Such risks could have as well been avoided if Monsanto was capable of identifying the critical point in the business processes where such illegal activities are likely to occur. The company could as well designate internal structures so that the staffs can report problems, risks and people those are sus pected with such activities. If all these strategies were adopted by Monsanto previously, then lawsuits could have avoided. Ethical Considerations Reflected In the Laws Applicable To This Case The case is related to fraudulent trade practices and bribery. Therefore, the laws related to these two illegal trade practices need to be considered. The ethics and anti-bribery rules try to raise the problems of ethical and moral attitude towards both bribery and corruption. In the ethical considerations related in the laws, offering bribes is as offensive as receiving it (Sosnow & Narayanan, n.d.). According to US law of deceptive advertisement, it is unethical if any company communicates a deceptive claim to 20-25 percent or greater than this amount of the target audience. Deceptive advertising is considered as wrong since it harms competitors, consumers as well as society as a whole. Deceptive advertisement is considered as wrong since the person practicing it tends to violate the need of morality (Carson, 2002). Sources of Law The cases are related to bribery and deceptive advertising practices. Therefore, bribery law of US has been demonstrated under 18 U.S. C. Â § 201 (United States Office of Government Ethics, 2011). It has been found that both the state and federal laws are responsible to regulate deceptive advertising. It is the Lanham Trademark Act that controls false advertising at the federal level. The Federal Trade Commission and state consumer protection agencies are mainly

(anything is fine) Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

(anything is fine) - Essay Example Black women have raised themselves from being considered beasts of labor, assigned to jobs typically considered to be male occupations, to gaining recognition to now leading a nation. Cooper explores how women of color have had a rough time in America, but there is hope for a better future because of their ability to fight back in an embodied way to disprove the public racist opinion. Brittney Cooper is an appropriate person to present a study of this nature as a professor with vast experience in Women’s Studies. Her experience as a black woman and as an expert in women’s studies gives her article a lot of credibility. Moreover, she has pointed out and referenced several articles written by fellow women and black women rights’ campaigners. Cooper gathers several pieces of verifiable evidence to support her arguments ranging from documented historical racism and the black woman’s position from slavery through the civil rights era into current events includi ng public opinion regarding Michelle Obama’s rise to the White House (Cooper, 2010). She has also included her own practical experience as a black woman and reveals telling encounters she's had with white people. There is a lot of evidence available throughout this study that is also generated from credible sources. The article is conclusive due to the quality of the evidence provided by Cooper. However, Cooper did not carry out any original research to prove her points. She could have done so using either questionnaires or survey forms to assess the black and white women’s opinions regarding the claims she was planning to make in her article. From the early days when Sojourner Truth felt it necessary to expose her breasts to a crowd of men to today's public appearances of Michelle Obama, one of the major claims Cooper makes is that the black woman's role in the public domain has been very focused on her body. According to Cooper (2010) black women have always used str ategies such as Michelle Obama’s dedication to presenting a fit body dressed in fashionable and appropriate clothing to defend their negative portrayals in public. Michelle Obama's appearance is a direct challenge to claims that black women are in poor shape and live in the ghettos. Like Sojourner Truth's bare breasts, the image of Michelle Obama cannot be easily argued away. These strategies play a major role in ensuring democracy because she is very clearly a lady of taste and refinement which she has shown in a positive and peaceful but uncompromising way. There are several arguments by Cooper, Darlene Clark and Evelyn Brooks regarding the bodily appearance of women in the public domain as well as their public self-representation and what it means to society as a whole. While the black man’s body has also been used to express concerns about racism and address some of the discriminatory and vulnerability issues that still exist, it is the woman's body that is most ef fective perhaps because the female form is most open for scrutiny in our society. Cooper (2010) attempts to give hope to black women who were initially subjected to sexual discrimination and other forms of exploitation through the use of these examples of black male oppression. Black women have always worried about their role in society as a result of their extreme oppression during slavery and through the forces of racism and discrimination that have

Learnig styles and Personality types Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Learnig styles and Personality types - Essay Example Howard Gardner (1983), in his theory of multiple intelligences, proposed that learning, for every individual, is a distinctive combination of intelligences, resulting from one's distinctive abilities, challenges, experiences, and training (Stremba & Bisson, 2009). Individuals possess distinctive learning styles depending on their process of focusing, processing, assimilating and reproducing content. Effectiveness of learning is mostly influenced by the mode of communication which connects the learner with the learning, through words, pictures, thoughts, feelings (verbal, visual, nonverbal, kinesthetic), sounds, numbers etc (Ryan & Cooper 2008). The visual learners have a tendency to relate their learning to observed events, objects, situations thereby forming impressions that help them retrieve information when they visualize these events or objects. Auditory learners tend to grasp information presented to them in some form of sound, like lecture, recording, music, discussion etc. this is characteristic of a classroom teaching, learning through audio-visual aids in training sessions, or in group discussions. Kinesthetic learners are more inclined to learning through experimentation, touching, and feeling. These learners tend to learn more when they move around, act out concepts while reading and by touching or feeling structures such as historical monuments. Effective learning can be ensured by adopting specific strategies that can match these learning styles, and help in better understanding, remembering, relating to facts and better reproducibility. For this, assessment of personality type is also important. Myers-Briggs model identifies four types of personalities based on specific traits possessed by people; they are thinker, organizer, giver and adventurer (Carter, Bishop & Kravits 2007). Keeping in mind these personality types and the aforementioned learning styles, different strategies can be developed that will aid in effective communication and collaboration among different people within a group. For instance, organizers with visual learning style can use colorful flashcards to emphasize on main learning points, use visual aids, pictures, graphics, maps etc. Thinkers with visual learning can make use of innovative designs, puzzles, and specific problem solving methods. Givers with auditory learning style can ensure better learning by teaching others, conducting group discussions, and enacting plays. Enacting plays can also help the visual learners. Organizing group activities using physical resources skillfully and games involving different people can be used for kinesthetic learners. This will also help the thinkers as it will give them an opportunity to problem solving with different approaches. Conducting lab experiments or practical study, in case of arts, along with lectures will benefit people with all the three learning styles. This process will also make use of different characteristics of organizers, givers, and thinkers in bringing about

Criminology research paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Criminology - Research Paper Example This is a worrying trend that should not only be left to the society and the law enforcers alone (Walsh, Anthony, and Craig Hemmens 57). According to recent research that was conducted, the results showed that high school male and female comprise of almost a quarter of crime arrests which is indeed an astonishing alarming rate. The research further shows that the rate of arrests of high female is nearly half the juvenile arrests as compared to two years ago when the rate was negligible to notice. Thus, more high school females are joining the gangs in order to commit criminal activities. It is also evident that more high school male and female are committing crime at an early age in their high school years which was not the trend before where the number was higher as the high school male and female graduated to upper classes. This shows that currently, the number is shockingly increasing with the majority being from the lower classes in the high system (Siegel, 114). The development of the juvenile justice system began more than a century ago where previously; the traditional English Common law was applicable. Initially, people who committed crime were confined in the same correction facility regardless of their ages. Thus, the old and the young were handled as adult criminals. The society including the families were fully responsible of disciplinary measures for the children but if the young adults committed crime that was viewed as above the norm, they were arrested and treated in a similar manner as an adult criminal. However, this system became abolished since the young adults instead of rehabilitating themselves they came out of the correctional facilities being hardcore criminals who had been hardened due to the influence on them by the adult criminals (Siegel, Larry and Brandon, 43). There was therefore the need to

Learnig styles and Personality types Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Learnig styles and Personality types - Essay Example Howard Gardner (1983), in his theory of multiple intelligences, proposed that learning, for every individual, is a distinctive combination of intelligences, resulting from one's distinctive abilities, challenges, experiences, and training (Stremba & Bisson, 2009). Individuals possess distinctive learning styles depending on their process of focusing, processing, assimilating and reproducing content. Effectiveness of learning is mostly influenced by the mode of communication which connects the learner with the learning, through words, pictures, thoughts, feelings (verbal, visual, nonverbal, kinesthetic), sounds, numbers etc (Ryan & Cooper 2008). The visual learners have a tendency to relate their learning to observed events, objects, situations thereby forming impressions that help them retrieve information when they visualize these events or objects. Auditory learners tend to grasp information presented to them in some form of sound, like lecture, recording, music, discussion etc. this is characteristic of a classroom teaching, learning through audio-visual aids in training sessions, or in group discussions. Kinesthetic learners are more inclined to learning through experimentation, touching, and feeling. These learners tend to learn more when they move around, act out concepts while reading and by touching or feeling structures such as historical monuments. Effective learning can be ensured by adopting specific strategies that can match these learning styles, and help in better understanding, remembering, relating to facts and better reproducibility. For this, assessment of personality type is also important. Myers-Briggs model identifies four types of personalities based on specific traits possessed by people; they are thinker, organizer, giver and adventurer (Carter, Bishop & Kravits 2007). Keeping in mind these personality types and the aforementioned learning styles, different strategies can be developed that will aid in effective communication and collaboration among different people within a group. For instance, organizers with visual learning style can use colorful flashcards to emphasize on main learning points, use visual aids, pictures, graphics, maps etc. Thinkers with visual learning can make use of innovative designs, puzzles, and specific problem solving methods. Givers with auditory learning style can ensure better learning by teaching others, conducting group discussions, and enacting plays. Enacting plays can also help the visual learners. Organizing group activities using physical resources skillfully and games involving different people can be used for kinesthetic learners. This will also help the thinkers as it will give them an opportunity to problem solving with different approaches. Conducting lab experiments or practical study, in case of arts, along with lectures will benefit people with all the three learning styles. This process will also make use of different characteristics of organizers, givers, and thinkers in bringing about

Discussion Board Post Response Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 39

Discussion Board Post Response - Essay Example Formative evaluation can be used to provide feedback for learning and consequently serve as the basis for improvements (Duers and Brown, 2009) and should therefore be conducted as the project progresses. I concur that summative evaluation is conducted at the end of an instructional unit (Duers and Brown, 2009) and can thus be conducted at the end of your practicum project. McKimm and Swanwick (2009) posits that objectives outlines what the student seeks to achieve at the end of a project. In this regard, I agree with your objectives in achieving your goal. Your objectives clearly shows what you will achieve at the end of the practicum project. For instance, you assert that you will be able to present findings to the executive system board for approval at the end of your project. I also concur with the other aspects of your discussion such as your methodology and evaluation plan. Your choice to utilize PFCC as your methodology will help achieve the projected outcomes based on findings from other methodical investigations, thus I agree with your methodology. It is only through formative and summative approaches to evaluation that you will be able to get feedback from your colleagues and also at the end of your project (Duers and Brown, 2009). In this respect, I agree with your evaluation

Conceptions of crime Essay Example for Free

Conceptions of crime Essay Conceptions of crime are distorted by exposure to media coverage. Discuss. This cours from coursework. inf coga ga . r se . ga . ga . w or. ga . . ga . k inga foga . ga . ! The media constitutes a major part of modern society and plays a large role in our lives. It is the prime source of information and entertainment, and moreover acts as a strong influence on public belief and opinion. The media is highly influential in coae ae . r se . ae . ae . w or. ae . . ae . k inae foae . ae . . shaping our views upon the world in which we live. When it comes to crime, coae ae .r se . ae . ae . w or. ae . . ae . k inae foae . ae . . however, do the reports shown by the media present an accurate picture of the true This cours from coursework. inf events? The more horrific the report, the more likely it is to capture the attention of the public, which obviously secures plenty of profit for media barons. Is our increasing reliance on an institution that relies on sensationalism to create profit unwise, as this could well mean that the facts they report lack truth? The media reinforces social myths by selective reporting, and thus presents a distorted view ofreality. This could be leading to an increasingly misconstrued public view of certain crimes. The media is a very powerful influence on the way in which we behave and how we view the world, therefore it is important that it shows a realistic picture of what is taking place in our society, otherwise we will gain a false perception of aspects such as crime. Is the media really portraying crime as it truly is, or is it selectively reporting the most colourful events in order to secure audiences and therefore profit? It is important to understand that there are many crimes that are completely ignored by the media, as they are not seen as ? newsworthy?. Usually only those that will capture public attention are mentioned. This means that the crimes that fill our screens and pages are usually violent or shocking in nature. From a functionalist perspective this can serve a positive function, as the deviant behaviour makes ordinary people feel safe in the knowledge that they are morally better than the criminal, and reporting of crimes and subsequent punishments can also serve as a deterrent to others and a good method of reinforcing the social order. However, there is also a certain degree of bias present in all reporting that stems from the integrated norms and moral background of the journalist involved. It is almost impossible to be completely objective when reporting, and most journalists will slant their stories to appeal to the widest possible audience. This is theorized in the hegemonic model, and works on the basis that the majority of journalists are likely to be white, male and middle-class and will therefore bring with them to their stories their own similar set of norms and values, be this unconsciously or otherwise. The editors will also carry out a selection process on the stories before they hit the public view; therefore it is highly unlikely that any crime report reaches the news in an unbiased state.? Journalists also tend to use a set of stereotypes, which serve to easily identify ? types? of people and reduce complexities of character to a series of ? bad guys? and ? good guys?. These can lead the public to make quick judgments, which may not be based on true fact.? The media? s presentation of stereotypical images can change the public opinion on certain groups in society, and may create a false picture of them that may be harmful. The groups most often portrayed as criminal are the less privileged and minority groups such as those from ethnic minorities. Because our lives are so deeply influenced by the media we begin to see the portrayal of these groups as a reality, and this may cause crimes committed by other groups or individuals (such as corporate crime in the middle class) to be overlooked or seen as less serious.? In addition, the police can make use of the media to help maintain social order by choosing what to tell reporters, as many news stories use police accounts as a major source for their information. A good example of the media distorting aspects of crime is shown with the reporting of women involved in criminal activity. The common media portrayal of women is more passive and much less inclined to commit crime, and when they do it is seen as less violent or shocking in nature, or as influenced by a stronger male personality, for example Myra Hindley was commonly said to have been under the influence of Ian Brady when the horrific Moors murders were committed. Media coverage usually concentrates on the most violent and shocking aspects of crime. This can often be far from the truth, and puts the public in fear when in reality there is a tiny chance of them falling victim. Listening to the news, it appears that the country is riddled with serial killers and rapists however official crime statistics would show that this is not the case. Reporting like this can lead to mass panic and fear across the country, and this aspect was investigated further by Stanley Cohen in his book ? Folk Devils and Moral Panics? where he studied the 1960s mods and rockers conflicts. The media? s handling of the fights between the rivals groups made it sound as if Brighton was full of riots and was a very dangerous place, when in reality this was a false picture of events. However, these stories grabbed the headlines, and as a result appealed to a large audience and gained lots of attention with the public. At the moment there is lots of media coverage about murders in Cornwall, and about the girl who was kidnapped and murdered on Dartmoor. The way these are reported makes people fearful that there is a serial killer on the loose, when in reality there is probably little chance of this happening to them and they should be more concerned with the more common but less ? colourful? crimes that threaten society, most of which would be much more obvious if the public were able to look at official crime statistics. This viewpoint fits in well with the idea of the media as a manipulative entity that is ideologically biased and therefore bases its selection of news on this fundamental bias. This manipulation theory is Marxist in origin and works on the idea that the public are passive and absorb the information that the media presents them with without question, and that the media consist of the ruling class who use media channels to perpetuate their views and opinions in society. Official statistics paint an interesting picture of the true nature of crime levels in society. It is a fact that crime rates have actually remained stable over the last year, after experiencing a period of decline. This challenges the constant media message that crime is everywhere and on the increase. When people were interviewed about crime rates many of them believed that crime was well on the increase, as result of a ? heightened degree of press coverage which particularly focused on a claimed rise in crime.? (Jon Simmons in the Home Office Report 2002).? It is a well-known fact that the media tend to emphasise aspects and types of crime that are violent or shocking, such as murder and rape, which affects the general population by creating huge worry about occurrences of violent crime when it is a statistical fact that one is over four times more likely to fall victim to burglary. Another form of media that can, and often does, present distorted representations of crime are television shows such as The Bill, Merseybeat or reality shows such as Crimewatch. For example Crimewatch focuses on catching criminals who have carried out violent crime and places little or no emphasis on occurrences of burglary or more ? normal? crimes, even though this type of crime is much more frequent. The Bill shows many incidents of violent crime, however also tends to show other less ? newsworthy? forms of crime such as theft which is a more realistic approach. coac ac . r se . ac . ac . w or. ac . . ac .k inac foac . ac . . There are a number of media influence models that attempt to explain the extent and nature of media influence. The manipulation theory presented earlier is one of these theories; however there are others that attempt to explain the media? s effect on society in different ways. The pluralist model argues that the public are not passive receptors but active participants with the ability to choose and form their own opinions from the vast variety of information presented by the media, whether about crime or about other social issues. The media only serve to reinforce the existing values that people possess. Tversky and Kahneman suggest that the easier it is to recall or imagine an event, the more likely we are to see it as risky or as frequent in occurrence (Tversky and Kahneman cit. 1994: 303). Therefore if this is correct then constant media coverage of violent crimes could lead us to believe that such crimes are the ones most likely to affect us. Mass media reporting can also serve as a substitute for direct experience, however research into this supports the pluralist model by showing that people are usually active consumers and interpreters rather than passive recipients. The issue at hand seems to be the growing difference between the way the public perceive crime and the reality as shown by official statistics. For some reason, society has a far greater fear of murder and other violent crime than is justified by the actual number of occurrence, when in reality there is far greater likelihood of incidences of burglary or car crime. So where do these fears stem from? The answer appears to be that they come from the way in which the media report crimes and how they select the most newsworthy aspects so that more papers will get sold and so viewing figures will increase. In conclusion it is an unavoidable fact that our society is so immersed in the media that its influence is hard to get away from. To a large extent, media does form our social world, however it is also true that people are active interpreters of information, and are able to utilize their own opinions on events and stories shown by the media. We are only taking in what the media offer to us not the real truth about what is happening. It is very easy for our conceptions of crime to be distorted by the way that the media portray it, as the only information we are receiving on the events is that which comes from the media. However if people really are actively interpreting and thinking about the true nature of crime levels, while attempting to broaden their horizons of information, then they will be more aware of the reality of the situation and our conceptions will be far less influenced by media constructed images and opinions. Bibliography Maguire, M, R. Reiner and R. Morgan. 2002 The Oxford Handbook Of Criminology New York: Oxford University Press Haralambos, M. 2000? Themes and Perspectives in Sociology? 4th edition Cohen, S and Young, J. 1973? The Manufacture Of News: Deviance, Social Problems and the Mass Media, London: Constable and Co Ltd.

A Review Of The Fm Radio

A Review Of The Fm Radio FM has proved itself to be the most innovative and extremely popular medium across the world. This medium enjoys a unique history. It has evolved like any other regular medium but proved itself when other media failed to do so. INVENTOR: It was Major Edwin Armstrong, who is the original inventor of the Frequency Modulation (FM) radio broadcasting system. Major Edwin is not only the inventor on FM but has also contributed greatly many enchantments to the Amplitude Modulation. Since the inventor was one of the developers of AM so he always knew what the AM lacked and its problems. Keeping his experience in his hand, Major Edwin devised a new type of radio transmission that eliminated these problems. He named the new type Frequency Modulation later on popularised as FM. The inventor had to face problems in launching hi FM. He took his idea to his friend who was the head of Radio Corporation of America (RCA). Major Edwin noticed the professional jealousy in the head of RCA so therefore sold the manufacturing rights to several other radio manufacturing companies. This resulted in Armstrong being plagued by RCAs determination to undermine his invention. The legal battle started between RCA and Armstrong and as a result of it the inventor jumped from his 30th floor apartment, ending his life. Working of FM: According to record of Westinghouse and KDKA On December 26, 1933, Edwin Howard Armstrong was issued five basic patents on his FM system. At the same time, it is important to remember that many stations in the VHF band were still amplitude modulated. Actual official FM operations began in 1940/41. Major Armstrong (U.S. Signal Corps, WWI) conducted the first regular transmissions of the FM techniques used today beginning in 1935 on a frequency of 42.1 MHz from a transmitter loaned him by RCA atop the Empire State Building in New York. On April 10, 1938, Armstrong began the experimental station W2XMN on 43.7 MHz at 600 Watts. Full Power of 35,000 Watts and regular programming was report begun on July 18, 1939. The station lasted until 1954. Several more stations began regular program service in 1940 as GE and other manufacturers started making quantities of FM receivers. All were still considered experimental and were operated without commercial content. According to online process there are two ways in which FM stations work. Either they are Digital or Ana-log. In Ana-log FM, the frequency of the AC signal wave, also called the carrier, varies in a continuous manner. Thus, there are infinitely many possible carrier frequencies. In narrowband FM, commonly used in two-way wireless communications, the instantaneous carrier frequency varies by up to 5 kilohertz (kHz, where 1 kHz = 1000 hertz or alternating cycles per second) above and below the frequency of the carrier with no modulation. In wideband FM, used in wireless broadcasting, the instantaneous frequency varies by up to several megahertz (MHz, where 1 MHz = 1,000,000 Hz). When the instantaneous input wave has positive polarity, the carrier frequency shifts in one direction; when the instantaneous input wave has negative polarity, the carrier frequency shifts in the opposite direction. At every instant in time, the extent of carrier-frequency shift (the deviation) is directly proportional to the extent to which the signal amplitude is positive or negative. In digital FM, the carrier frequency shifts abruptly, rather than varying continuously. The number of possible carrier frequency states is usually a power of 2. If there are only two possible frequency states, the mode is called frequency-shift keying (FSK). In more complex modes, there can be four, eight, or more different frequency states. Each specific carrier frequency represents a specific digital input data state. Frequency modulation is similar in practice to phase modulation (PM). When the instantaneous frequency of a carrier is varied, the instantaneous phase changes as well. The converse also holds: When the instantaneous phase is varied, the instantaneous frequency changes. But FM and PM are not exactly equivalent, especially in analog applications. When an FM receiver is used to demodulate a PM signal, or when an FM signal is intercepted by a receiver designed for PM, the audio is distorted. This is because the relationship between frequency and phase variations is not linear; that is, frequency and phase do not vary in direct proportion. Federal Communication Commission (FCC): The FCC permitted regular commercial operation of FM stations in 1941, and the first commercial FM station, W47NV (now WSM-FM) in Nashville, signed on during New Years Day of 1941. The first Non-Commercial FM station was KALW, San Francisco. Owned by the SF Unified School District, this station was licensed in March of 1941, and apparently signed on officially sometime between then and September. (This station was equipped with a converted RCA unit, given to the District, after 1939-40 Golden Gate International Exposition. Armstrong also operated a subcarrier on that transmitter and demonstrated transmission of facsimile, to show that newspapers might also be delivered by radio broadcast stations. His facsimile demonstrations were carried on later by a number of FM stations, most notably those of the Cox broadcast and newspaper group, including WIOD-FM in Miami. Difference between AM and FM: AM radio stations broadcast at much lower frequency when compared with FM. According to Porter (2010) Commercial AM stations broadcast at 550 kilohertz to 1600 kilohertz, while FM stations broadcast at 88 megahertz to 108 megahertz. The prefix kilo stands for thousand, and the prefix mega stands for million. She further says that the radio waves travelling in the air remain more vulnerable to amplitude changes rather than frequency. AM and FM are different in their working. They transmit in different ways. AM transmits through power and the ionosphere interferences with these radio waves while FM is though high antennas in the air to broaden the range of broadcast. FM Media in Pakistan: Naz (2008) writes that Pakistan Broadcast Corporation (PBC) took the first step in setting up an FM station back in 1994 as FM Gold. PBC has used its own studios and staff for FM Gold. The initial transmission was limited to the big cities only. The transmission slots were from 7:00 AM till 1:00 PM as experimental. In 1996 PBC started FM 101 as an independent FM channel. Fm 100 is considered the pioneer FM station, established in 1994 and started its transmission on March 23 1995 according to their webpage history. After an immense response to FM 100 in listenership and commercialization and technological boom, the debate of privatization hit the Pakistan Media field. Soon afterward Musharraf liberated the Media and so new and private channels entered the media entrepreneurship. This proved to be a very positive step for FM stations development. Radio has been an integral part of any nations communication. It has the power to make or break the society when it comes to the impact of radio. The radio in Pakistan has also seen downfalls in history and at times it has also seen upsurges. The nation when had only one media of communication, radio, the nation utilized the media vastly and vitally. Radio Pakistan has witness its glory days when whole families use to sit around it for news or infotainment. With advent of TV radios usage graph dropped little down. But the usage of TV was limited to cities only. Even today at many far flung areas in Pakistan, TV is not the media in use but still its radio. Introduction of FM in the country was the revival of radio medium in the country. The broadcast quality of FM is vastly superior to that of AM. The FM stations in Pakistan can be categorized in three: Affiliated channels The affiliated broadcasters are the legal broadcasts that come under PEMRA in Pakistan. These channels are properly licensed and they operate under the laws of Pakistan. These are geographically registered. Right winged FM broadcast There are FM channels that are designed for the right winged society keeping in view the fact that religion is the base to everything in our society. Currently Pakistan does not have such channel operating. Sustained Illegal FM broadcasters These are un-authorized channels that have been used by many non-state elements. The biggest example of this category is the illegal FM stations in Swat and FATA. This type or category is mostly used by negative elements in a society or revolutionist. For many areas in NWFP and FATA, since there were number of illegal stations working, therefore, government has introduced alternative radio stations controlled by government itself. Mostly these alternative radio stations are available in the urban centres along with international radio stations like BBC and VOA. Pakistan Electronic Media Regulatory Authority (PEMRA): To regulate the public and private media Musharraf made a regulatory body Pakistan Electronic Media Regulatory Authority (PEMRA). PEMRA according to their official website has been established under PEMRA Ordinance 2002 to facilitate and regulate the private electronic media. It has mandate to improve the standards of information, education and entertainment and to enlarge the choice available to the people of Pakistan Including news, current affairs, religious knowledge, art and culture as well as science and technology. According to Wikipedia (2010), Pakistan Electronic Media Regulatory Authority (formerly named RAMBO Regulatory Authority for Media and Broadcast Organizations) was formed to gradually liberate the broadcasting sector in Pakistan. PEMRA has issued a number of licenses to Cable TV operations, FM Radio stations and Satellite TV Channels. PEMRA and FM: FM radio broadcasting is used for the high quality sound. The band according to PEMRA is 880109 MHz. The area of coverage is 40-50kms. The main clauses of PEMRA dealing FM stations are 13. Media ownership concentration and exclusion of monopolies. To ensure that fair competition is facilitated, media diversity and plurality are promoted in the society and undue concentration of media ownership is not created. Maximum number of licences that may be issued to a person or any of its directors or partners where such person is a company or firm, who is directly or indirectly, controlling, owning or operating more than one media enterprise, shall not exceed a total of four satellite TV, four FM Radio licences and two landing rights permissions. Area of operation- A licensee to whom a licence has been issued for a particular area shall not extend or shift its operations beyond the territorial limits of that area without prior permission of the Authority and up-gradation of its existing licence or issuance of a new licence shall also be subject to permission in writing by the Authority: Provided that an FM radio licensee shall not be allowed to shift its station from the city for which it has been licensed. The body has a set code of conduct about the content. The code of conduct is same for both the audio and audio visual media. It is a 2 page code of conduct which includes the basic ethical restrictions. FM today: Like the rest of the world, Pakistan also saw the boom in the radio industry and so after allowing from government to set up private radio stations, more than 200 FM stations have been licensed. Presently there are number of FM stations working in big and small cities. MA Research Foundation (2009) writes that majority of the current radio stations are entertainment focused while some also broadcast news. The FM station is an active media and an important source of contacting with people. Local FM stations can be very helpful for communicating with people at a local level plus it could narrow down the gap between administration and public. Initially the FM media lacked trained people. Since there were not many trained radio workers. But then in the following years many universities offered degrees in media which to some extent met the deficiency of trained people. Still the media is said to be growing and at initial stage of learning since trained people are not substitutes of experienced ones. Problems and Solutions of FM Stations: The biggest and foremost problem that FM stations face is in the selection of broadcasters. FM broadcasters are commonly known as RJs i.e. radio jockeys or MJs i.e. Music Jockeys. Since the media lacks experienced people therefore selection and hiring has been an issue in the industry. In case of an RJ, only the quality of voice has been considered benchmark. As far as the criteria of selection is considered, command over language, pronunciation, general knowledge in social political and ethical issues must be stressed. An RJ must not be just put in front of the mike without his/her training in various fields. He/she should first be trained according to the policy of the parent company. Before sitting in front of the mike the RJ should at least have knowledge about the psychology of people of the broadcast area or the target audience. These days the FM is only a revenue generation firm. Revenue at any cost not only damages the standard of the station but also the reputation plus it is contrary to the ethical values practiced in Pakistan. To attract more listenership and through huge listenership attracting more and more advertisers has been an issue. Since all radio stations except few follow this policy therefore the FM media faces monotone in its programming. For this reason mostly the programs are entertainment based and musical. FM in Pakistani Society: The FM media has the ability to mobilize the society and depart information to the society. Therefore it could be an important tool for the societal development. The FM stations are the best way to involve people in the society development projects. For this purpose more and more community radios should be set up. Setting up community radios might be risky because if not set properly. These can be used for negative propagandas. Properly set means to be like a proper radio station registered with PEMRA and under the law of the country. Radio and specially FM stations that are now even available in mobiles as well are a cheap source of entertainment, education and information. Especially in big cities where one has access to number of different radio stations. This is not only a cheap media in terms of price but also a portal media which was easy to carry with you. A common use of the FM is seen during any other work since it is a cold media. It can be listened while doing some other routine work. People enjoy listening to it while driving, ploughing in villages, and workers in factories or shops. FM in Pakistan gained more popularity in electricity crisis. When people have no access to any media, FM stations proved to be the only source of information. The role of the media is also to unite people in case of any insurgency or problem in any country. These radio stations are also helpful in dealing with the natural calamities. This role was visible during the 2005 earthquake. The radio stations besides their regular transmission also aired the names and information about the missing people and injured people so that they may be contacted by their relatives. Not only had this but the radio proved itself in Pakistan when it tried in bringing people out of that trauma that the nation had gone through. FM media and Politics: The emergency in Pakistan: During emergency rule in Pakistan, when all media had to go through dark phase and when people had no access to any medium, before moving towards internet as media , people of Pakistan had tried FM stations. H.Yousaf(2009) says that people had been using FM radio broadcasts and cell phones as a way to organize and disseminate information. She adds that the emergent, ad hoc, and hyper local networked public spheres thus created served the public well under emergency rule. According to the writer the medium did not emerge as a site for civic engagement or community building. This was due to the fact that the FM channels both private and public were banned to air news and current affairs even before the emergency rule. According to PEMRA regulations the FM stations were supposed to broadcast diversified mixture of programs specializing in education, information, entertainment, culture and other areas. Initially this clause was interpreted to mean that no form of news is allowed. Community radios are thought to be daily life radio which guides you to make your day easier. This may be by telling you the right road to your office or keeping and umbrella in case of forecast rain. The city radio of Karachi according to H.Yousaf, played the role of community radio during 2008 Karachi riots. It kept on alerting people with traffic updates. FM stations: The common FM stations that are accessible in the federal capital are: FM 101 This is the channel of Radio Pakistan. The channel was specially introduced for the youth of Pakistan. The content of the channels involve regular programming with strict ethical code of conduct. FM 101 does not enjoy a complete freedom of expression since it comes under a government body. FM 101 also airs its transmission on dish TV. FM 100 FM 100 was the first and a leading channel. It has maintained its standard of content. All the content aired on FM100 is in respect to the culture and traditions of Pakistan. FM 96.4 FM 96.4 is relatively new. The channel is a simple entertainment channel. The channel has RJs for whole day. FM 94 It is an English channel. The channel is called Planet 94. This is an entertainment channel which airs the entertaining content in English. FM 92.4 This is a specialized community radio station from Islamabad Traffic Police. The channel specialises in traffic management information and education. The channel is localized therefore it airs special content for traffic. FM 89 This is an English based channel. The name of the channel is city FM 89. Its target audience is English speaking foreigners and overseas Pakistani who have returned to Pakistan. Many people call it a elite class or upper class radio station. It currently operates four stations across Pakistan: Karachi, Lahore, Islamabad and Faisalabad. FM 91: FM 91 is another English channel. It is owned by an advertising agency. Listening to 91gives an impression of it set to be a top dog. This maintains the Pakistani culture and does not westernize the content at the value of Pakistani culture. The RJs at FM 91 seem to be more Pakistani speaking English. The channel also airs Urdu music at time. The channel enjoys the ratio of music and content at 70:30 in terms of language Urdu and English. So the channel cannot be categorized complete English. FM99 Targeting the lower middle and middle class of Pakistan 99 has gained popularity in masses. The channel also airs programs on current affairs and news. It also airs programs in other languages like dari and Pashtu. FM 93 FM 93 is also a channel of Radio Pakistan. It specializes in sports. The channel airs live coverage of the cricket matches of Pakistan. FM 106.2 This is a musical special since it does not have any RJ. The channel only has music aired all the time. Besides that the channel airs BBC sports news 3 to 4 times a day. It is also a cricket specialized station because it also airs the coverage of the cricket matches but no other sports. Content of FM stations: If the content of above mentioned fm channels is examined closely there would be clearly seen that these fm channels or purely entertainment based. The news content is not mainly focused by these channels if we see them collectively. But after examining them on individual level the findings are different from channel to channel. The FM stations in Pakistan are mostly entertainment based. This entertainment mainly is through live shows that RJs conduct and play music on the whole. They have a link time defined by their company. The linked time refers to the time that they speak on air. In between this link time, music is played. Many radio stations are now running programs for women issue and even youth or children based as well. But the format of the programs is more or less the same. The special programs that focus on women issue or any other will have some experts in it talking on the issue and being contacted by local women through telephone in case of any query. Another benchmark that the radio station of Pakistan has set is to have a Ghazal program at the late hours of the day. The programs of the radio stations can be said to be monotonous. Any FM station will have a special music hour, a specialised program, a night time ghazal program and regular music based shows. The radio station should keep in mind the program that it has to present. While planning a program, the length and utility of the program? How long the program will be, its frequency and also its consequences. Keep in view what will be the consequences of your programs and will it be anything utilizable for the society or not. The news element on radio seems to lack some technicalities. A good new bulletin on radio can become a cause of attraction for the listeners. The main function of news and current affairs on FM channel is to aware people and trains them. Easy access to information leads to educated society and once the society is educated it gains the confidence to play its role in nation building. According to MA research publication (2009) Presently, FM radio stations are working on big and small towns, and highways but many radio stations avoid broadcasting news due to strict and tough policies of PEMRA. In fact, in the beginning PEMRA had not allowed the private sector radio stations to present news and current affairs programs, but now after the PEMRA has relaxed its rules, some FM radio stations have began news and current affairs programs. However, the FM radios presenting news programs face shortage of trained and experienced staff, having a keen news sense and command on technical aspects of news. Moreover, the listeners want immediate information about major happenings while the FM radios due to lack of proper staff fail to provide them correct and timely news. They further write that The FM stations do not have trained and experienced people. That is why the standard of the news and current affairs is not up to the mark and satisfactory. The stations should have a co de of conduct for the people from news and current affairs. There is a big way difference in the content of public and private channels. The public channels fm 101 and fm 93 have got different focus and preferences. They give hour to hour detailed news bulletin and they also broadcast news programs, news documentaries, dialogues, and promotional content for the state authorities. If we examine the news content of these two channels they can considered being puppets in the hands of government. The activities and events of the authorities are also given a prominent coverage by these two channels. This is what we can take as a drawback of these channels but if we see the positive side it is found after analyzing their content that these channels are very patriotic and loyal. Every national day is celebrated by fm 101 and fm 93 with specially designed program line. As far as the music collection is concerned, Indian songs are not allowed to air through fm 101 and fm 93. When the content of both the channels is compared with each other, it is found that fm 101 has a conventional and sober tone while fm 93 is designed according to the demand of todays trends. Its more lively and dynamic in its program formats and content even fm 93 is given more freedom as compared to fm 101. Another good aspect of these two channels is they give a significant importance to decency of the content and they are strictly monitored to maintain the civility in the programs. Radio junkies are not allowed to use bold topics or bold and indecent words in their conversation. Very keen attention is given to the Urdu pronunciation and dialogue delivery of the presenters. You would find an excellent selection and delivery of words uttered by the presenters in the programs especially in the news bulletin. When it comes to the private channels fm 100 is the one which comes at the top of this league in terms of decency, standard and quality content. The best thing about fm 100 is it keeps its decency and follow the moral values but also comes in the league of modern channels. It fulfils the demand of todays youth but doesnt adopt cheap methods to increase its popularity. The listenership of this channel is very high just because of this reason. It wouldnt be wrong if we call it a well balanced fm channel of Pakistan. The news bulletin is aired after every hour and there are also some programs designed to discuss the social and political issues. This channel doesnt focus on news content that much as compared to the other channels. It focuses on the traditional and culture oriented program formats. Fm 99 is considered to come under the popular channels. This channel gives a great focus to the news content as well. The channel is also known for its over-entertainment content and program formats. It caters each and every strata of society. It doesnt pay much attention to the decency of the content and language used by the presenters most of the times cross the borders of civility. The channel hired presenters from every region and designed the programs in many regional languages as well. There is no restriction on the selection of songs. Fm 106.2 is a pure entertainment channel. It is owned by ARY, a reputed television channel of Pakistan. It airs nonstop music 24 hours a day. There wasnt any presenter in the channel when it was started but it was just focusing on airing the music all the time. Now they have started some programs but most of the time nonstop music is aired from the channel. News content is not given attention by this fm channel. FM 91 as caters elite class keeps the essence of parent culture in its programs. Most of RJs on the channel are with neutral accent. Their RJs do not Americanize their accents while speaking English. The channel is purely an entertainment channel. They have special designed programs for peace, patriotism and peace promotion. Another 24 hour entertainment channel plays mostly English, Hindi and Urdu music. The channel also has the privilege to be the first in playing its part for the community betterment. The program was specially designed for the youngsters to seek advice from experienced people to pursue their career. As far as RJs of FM91 are concerned, well this channel has maintained a set standard in hiring its RJs. So you will find good RJs on this station who not only are well groomed in their personalities but they add something to the society through this powerful medium that they have. Another radio station launched by the Islamabad traffic police, is FM 92.4. This can be categorized under a community radio since it performs some tasks of a community radio. But the tasks that it performs for community are limited to traffic and road problems only. In a way this can also be called a specialized radio which is dealing a single department. The content aired is not up to the mark since the RJs at the station seem to be amateur. They are not well trained or experienced. The station has stick policy to play only the national music and no other type. The channel airs the traffic update of Rawalpindi and Islamabad from time to time. Along with that they keep on playing promos that comprise of traffic rules and road ethics. FM94 and 96.4 are comparatively new in line. FM 94 is still struggling with target audience since the channel has still not made it to favourites of any group. This is another English channel that airs all English content. It is also a creation of Radio Pakistan. Since it is a public owned station therefore it is faced with lot many restrictions when compared with other English stations. FM 94.6 is Urdu channel. It is purely an entertainment channel. The channel faces the same issues of substandard content that other Urdu stations also suffer from. FM stations Network: The FM station like TV stations in Pakistan can find a common ground and produce a networking for the betterment of the field. For the betterment two declarations have already been conducted which are discussed below: Murree Declaration: Pakistan Press Foundation (PPF) in collaboration with International Broadcasting Bureau of Voice of America (VOA) organized a five-day workshop at Shangrila Hotel, Murree from May 14 to May 18, 2006, which was attended by local and foreign FM broadcasters and university representatives. The workshop participants approved the following declaration: 1. A community radio forum should be established in Pakistan. 2. PEMRA should review and amend its rules and policies to help in development of community radio in Pakistan. 3. PEMRA should allow the community radios to present news and current affairs programs. 4. Strategy should be formed for booting freedom of expression, ensuring security and safety of people related to mass media, and further straightening of media organizations. 5. Network should be formed between participants of workshop. 6. Universities should set up training academies for broad casters of all communities in their mass communication/ journalism departments. 7. The radio stations set up in the earthquake affected areas should be allowed to continue their broadcasting, and they should also be given status of community radios. 8. A network of campus radios should be established in Pakistani universities. 9. Pakistan Press Foundation should be requested to continue its training workshops for the capacity building of community broadcasters. 10. The government should ensure peoples access to information at every level A six-member committee comprised Mr. Razi Rizvi of Voice of America Urdu Service, Mr. Owais Aslam Ali Secretary General Pakistan Press Foundation, Mr. Sajjad Paracha of Mass Communication Department University of Bahawalpur, Ms. Shazia Gul of Mass Communication Department University of Peshawar, Mr. Aijaz Ahmed of Mass Communication Department University of Baluchistan Quetta, and Mr. Muhammad Rafiq Bhatti, Deputy Controller Radio Pakistan Muzaffarabad drafted the declaration. Rawalakot Declaration: Pakistan Press Foundation in collaboration with Friedrich-Ebert-Stiftung(FES) organized a workshop on Development of FM Radio in Pakistan at the Himalaya International Hotel Rawalakot, Azad Kashmir on August 9-10, 2008, which was attended by the station managers and broadcasters of 23 FM radio stations of Pakistan. They approved following declaration: 1. The government should make laws to ensure access of FM radio information at every level. 2. A guar